Prepare a Report Essay Example

Prepare a Report Essay How to Write a Project Report 1. Why is the report important? If you wish to secure a good mark for your project, it is absolutely essential that you write a good report. It is the report which is marked, not the program or anything else you might have constructed during the project period. No matter how significant your achievements, if you do not write up your work, and write it up well, you will obtain a poor mark. It is essential to understand that the report will be read and marked by a number of examiners (normally 2 4), only one of whom your supervisor will have any familiarity with the work which the report describes. Examiners are not mind-readers, and cannot give credit for work which you have done but not included in the report. 2. What are the examiners looking for? Each project report is marked initially by two examiners, one of whom is the supervisor. Each examiner fills in an online  mark form, giving marks for various aspects of the report and an overall mark. Studying the mark sheet will give you a good idea of what aspects of the report are important. The notes to examiners which accompany the mark sheet use the terms perfect, quite good, abysmal and so on to describe the attributes of a particular numerical mark (e. . 5 is satisfactory). There is a separate document which goes into great detail about what precisely satisfactory means in particular contexts, but Im not sure that these definitions are widely used: most examiners believe that they have an accurate and objective understanding of what is satisfactory. Note that supervisors might specify on the mark sheet that a particular aspect of the project is to be assessed for example, a review of the project area even if that area is not covered in the project report. We will write a custom essay sample on Prepare a Report specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Prepare a Report specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Prepare a Report specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Decisions on what is to be assessed are the supervisors responsibility, but you should be aware of the standard headings, think carefully about what you present (or do not present) under each, and discuss and agree it with your supervisor. Remember that your report is an academic dissertation, not a popular article or commercial proposal. For example, rather than describing only a series of events and a final product, try to establish criteria, present arguments, derive principles, pose and answer questions, measure success, analyse alternatives nd so on. Where a project has been undertaken with industrial support, the significance of that support for the project, and the relevance of the project to the supporting industry, should be discussed. 3. The mechanics of writing The problem you have to solve is this: to transfer your own experiences of doing the project, and the knowledge you have gained, from your brain onto paper in a coherent, logical and correct form. There are several ways of achieving this. Different authors have different techniques. My own method, which I think is quite common among technical authors, is to write as quickly as I can, without regard for coherency, structure or order, until I have written down (or rather, typed in) all the points I can think of. If my brain is running faster than my fingers and a thought pops into my head which belongs in another part of the document, I skip to the end of the page and insert a few words there to remind me to expand that point later, then resume where I was. The aim is to transfer as much relevant material from brain to paper as quickly as possible. This method has been called the brain dump. It is practised, I think, by some writers of fiction as well as by technical authors. After three hours of brain dumping I might have four or five pages of disorganized text. I then spend perhaps six hours putting the text into order and tightening up the prose, after which I might have three pages of good-quality prose. This method of writing is an iterative process, with periods of brain dumping alternating with periods of tidying-up. At the rate of three pages of polished text every nine hours, a typical 60-page PR3 project report will take you about four weeks to complete, working full-time. You must allow time to prepare the appendices (e. g. program listings) and illustrations. Good-quality illustrations, in particular, take a long time to prepare. You should therefore allow at least  six weeks  to write the report. If you kept a note-book during the project period, you will find the writing-up process much easier. 4. How to write well Many students appear not to realize how difficult it is to write well. Any type of writing (except perhaps advertising copy) is difficult, but technical writing is particularly hard. There are many books which address the subject of good technical writing. By far the best among those which I have seen is  Scientists Must Write  by Robert Barrass (1982). Though published over twenty years ago, this superb little book is still in print. There are several copies in the J. B. Morrell library, but since it costs only ? 11. 19 (from the  Internet Bookshop), you would be well advised to buy a copy and to read it from cover to cover. 4. 1. Precision You must strive first to be absolutely precise. When you write, it is not sufficient that  you  know what you mean; neither is it sufficient that your writing admits of the meaning which you intend: it must admit of no other meaning. What you write must not be capable of misinterpretation. Take exceptional care to choose the right word for the occasion. Do not, for example, write optimum if you mean good. Approximate means close, so very approximate means very close which is not what many people seem to think it means. 4. 2. Vigour Precision in writing is mainly a matter of taking sufficient care. Good writing is not only precise, however, it is  vigorous, and that is much harder to achieve. It helps if you have read widely, especially novels. Here are some hints which might help you to write forcefully and vigorously. Prefer short sentences to long sentences. Prefer short words to long words, provided that the short word has the meaning you need. Terseness is a great virtue in technical writing. (But dont go too far; remember Horaces observation: Brevis esse laboro, obscurus fio. ) Avoid circumlocutions. In almost all sectors of the computing marketplace can be replaced in most contexts by almost everywhere. The question of whether to use the passive voice in technical writing is a thorny one. Most older writers still write a program was written rather than I wrote a program . Many of your examiners might share this preference for, or prejudice in favour of, the passive voice, but this style is passing out of favour in all technical writing, and I advise you not to use it. Whatever you do, do not use the royal we (we wrote a program when you mean I wrote a program). There is general agreement that Latin phrases are best avoided in technical writing (but the occasional Latin quotation might lend a spurious air of erudition! ) Nevertheless, many careful writers have their own favourite Latin phrases which find occasional use. The best rule is that a Latin phrase is acceptable if it abbreviates a circumlocutionary English phrase. Mutatis mutandis, for example, one of my own favourites, is permissible in place of making the appropriate changes, since any English gloss seems to be ugly and unwieldy. I. e. (note the roman font and punctuation) is often useful in place of in other words or that is, and is widely understood. Quite often, however, X, i. e. ,  Y can be replaced by Y, because the writer realized while writing  X  that  Y  said the same, only better. E. g. is overused and best used sparingly; prefer for instance or for example. 4. 3. Spelling and grammar You must take exceptional care to spell correctly. Poor spelling is a distraction to the proficient reader. In most cases there is very little excuse nowadays for spelling errors; there are many excellent spell-checker programs which make a good job of finding the errors for you, and excellent (paper) dictionaries which will tell you wh at the correct spelling is. Be especially careful with words whose common misspelling is a correct spelling of a different word, in particular the following pairs: lead/led; loose/lose; affect/effect. It is dangerous to allow the spell-checker to correct a misspelling by itself; many such hilarious corrections have been reported, for example recently in  New Scientist. Believe the spell-checker. Very many people, for example, on finding that the spell-checker questions idiosyncracy [sic], say to themselves it must be missing from the dictionary file, and leave the word alone. It is for a good reason. If you have a medical condition which makes it difficult for you to spell correctly, make sure that your supervisor knows about it, so that it can be taken into account by the examiners. If poor spelling is a distraction which impedes understanding, poor grammar is more so. There are so many potential grammatical solecisms that it would be inappropriate to attempt to list them here. Read Fowlers  Modern English Usage  for guidance. This book has been revised several times since its first publication in 1926. The most recent (1998) edition is probably the best to use, not because its recommendations are more permissive or up-to-date, but because it draws attention to traps which it would not have occurred to Fowler in 1926 that anyone could fall into. The original 1926 edition is famous for its vigorous, fiery language, which has been successively watered down in later revisions. Take care with apostrophes. Historically, the apostrophe denoted the omission of one or more letters: dont = do not, Johns book = John his book. For this reason, careful writers of British English restrict the possessive use of the apostrophe to animate possessors. You may write Johns book but not the programs function, since (so the argument goes) one cannot write the program his function: you must write the function of the program instead. This rule is being steadily eroded under American influence, and will probably soon be obsolete. I mention the animate possessor rule in order to illustrate and to explain a very common blunder. Never  use an apostrophe with a possessive pronoun. Its means it is (the letter thats omitted is an i),  not  it his, which is plain silly. One never sees spurious apostrophes in his, hers, ours, yours, theirs; so why does one so often see its in place of its, which is the correct possessive pronoun? The brain of the experienced reader, on seeing its, performs a lexical-level macro-expansion, replacing its by it is. This then fails to make syntactic sense in the context, necessitating a backtracking and re-parsing operation, and conscious expenditure of effort. It really does slow down, and consequently annoy, the reader. This crass and ignorant blunder probably does more to distract and to impede the reader of students reports than any other grammatical solecism. Summary: its = it is (needed rarely, if at all, in formal writing). Its is the pronoun (This is my program. Its purpose is to .) You almost certainly mean its. Even if you yourself do not place a strong emphasis on good spelling and good grammar, most of your examiners do, some fanatically. Most examiners will be irritated by poor spelling and poor grammar. It is always worth doing whatever you can, short of bribery, to put your examiner in a good mood. Write well and spell well, for this reason if for no other! 4. 4. Typography When I prepared my own final-year project report, I wrote it with pen and ink and handed the manuscript to the departmental secretary who typed it for me on an IBM typewriter. Modern practice is different, and now you yourself are responsible for producing a computer-typeset report. This means that you must be familiar both with the formal requirements set out in the Students Handbook (restricting the number of pages, type size, width of margins, and so on) and with the rudiments of typography. You will not be penalized severely, if at all, if you violate typographical conventions, but good typography creates a subliminal impression akin to that of good proportion in a painting, and is desirable for that reason. Since it is a matter of simply learning and following the rules, you should try to do so. You should learn at least enough (for example) to know the difference between the hyphen, minus, en-dash and em-dash, and when to use each of them. The best and most famous typographical reference book is  Rules for compositors and readers at the University Press, Oxford  by Horace Hart, known colloquially and universally as Harts Rules. It is a small book which you should probably read from cover to cover, but you may skip the section on Russian orthography if your report contains no Russian words. This book, like Fowler, has been revised continually since its first publication (in 1904, though it was in use within the O. U. P. ince 1893). The latest edition is dated 1983. It is still in print, almost a century after its first publication, and at ? 8. 79 (from the  Internet Bookshop), well worth buying. 4. 5. Illustrations Your report should generally contain illustrations (figures or diagrams), but they must be relevant. Ask yourself if the illustration helps the reader to un derstand the text. If the text is readily comprehensible without the illustration, delete the illustration. If it is not, it is usually better to make the text clearer than to add a diagram. All illustrations should be prepared by an appropriate program, such as  pic,  xfig  or  grap. They should not be hand-drawn. The only common exception to this rule is circuit diagrams: given the current state of the art in schematic-entry packages, a hand-drawn circuit diagram is usually preferable to a computer-drawn one. If possible, include figures close to the text which refers to them, rather than all together in an appendix. Circuit diagrams are, again, a possible exception to this rule. It is normal to list tables and figures at the beginning of the report, after the table of contents. 5. Structure Saepe stilum vertas. Horace 5. 1. Top-level structure At the top level, a typical report is organized in the following way. 1. Abstract. (This is a couple of paragraphs no more which summarizes the content of the report. It must be comprehensible to someone who has not read the rest of the report. ) 2. Introduction. (The scope of the project, setting the scene for the remainder of the report. ) 3. Previous work. (One or more review chapters, describing the research you did at the beginning of the project period. ) 4. Several chapters describing what you have done, focusing on the novel aspects of your own work. 5. Further work. (A chapter describing possible ways in which your work could be continued or developed. Be imaginative but realistic. ) 6. Conclusions. (This is similar to the abstract. The difference is that you should assume here that the reader of the conclusions has read the rest of the report. ) 7. References and appendices. 5. 2. References References must be relevant. A typical PR3 project report might contain about one page of pertinent references, if the initial research period was well spent. Do not include references which you have not read, no matter how relevant you think they might be. If you refer to standard material which is covered by a large number of text-books, choose one or two really good ones and cite those, rather than a long list of mediocre texts. There are many styles for citing references. Although strict standards (e. g. British Standards) for citing references exist, my advice is not to bother with them; instead, find a reputable journal in the library and copy its style. Alternatively, copy the example below. Its important to be consistent, complete and unambiguous; beyond that, it doesnt matter much what you do. Example citation style: Citations in text:Mander, in Notes on a system specification method [Mander 1983], gives the following as described by Briggs [1983a] Thimblebys guidelines [Thimbleby 1983] suggest that Different methodologies have been examined [Tully 1983]. Several recent publications in this field [Wand 1980d, ACM 1971] have been very influential. List of references at end of report: References| ACM 1971. | Association for Computing Machinery,  Second symposium on problems in the optimisation of data communication systems, ACM (1971). | Briggs 1983a. | J. S. Briggs, The design of AIR and its use in Ada separate compilation, in  SERC workshop on Ada software tools interfaces, ed. P. J. Wallis, University of Bath (1983). Downes 1982. | V. A. Downes, S. J. Goldsack,  Programming embedded systems with Ada, Prentice-Hall (1982). | Mander 1983. | K. C. Mander,  Notes on a system specification method, York Computer Science report no. 61, University of York (1983). | Thimbleby 1983. | H. W. Thimbleby, Guidelines for `manipulative text editing,  Behaviour and Information Technology,  2, 127 161 (1983). | | If you adopt this style, when you cite a reference, you need not repeat the authors name or authors names (Jones and Sanderson [Jones Sanderson 1999] have shown ). Write instead: Jones and Sanderson [1999] have shown , and list the reference as Jones Sanderson 1999. Alternatively, a system of numbered references, such as the default format produced by the Unix  refer  tool in conjunction with  troff, is acceptable. I myself much prefer numbered citation styles, which I find much less obtrusive and easier on the eye; e. g. Jones and Sanderson? have shown or Jones and Sanderson [1] have shown . These forms, which are allowed by the regulations in the Handbook, seem to be the two dominant citation styles in academic journals. You may wish to refer to electronic sources, particularly material found on the World-Wide Web. It is not enough to put found on WWW in place of a citation. The web page Bibliographic Formats for Citing Electronic Information gives advice on citing on-line sources. If possible, avoid citing unpublished literature. It is however acceptable to cite university reports, such as this Departments YCS series, and PhD theses (although getting hold of the latter can be almost impossible). References are always cited in the text. Other works youve made use of but not cited should be listed in a section called Bibliography. Note that et al. requires a period after the abbreviation al. (for alia). It means and others, and may be used only to refer to people, typically in lists of references. It is the animate form of etc. , which also requires a period. 5. 3. Lower-level structure Structure is a recursive concept. A well-structured report has its top-level sections well ordered, and it is easy to get this right; but each section must in itself be well ordered, and that is more difficult. Most paper documents, and many on-line documents, are read linearly from beginning to end. This is certainly true of an examiner reading a project report. Consequently, the writer of a well-structured document avoids forward references wherever possible. Try to avoid writing as we shall see in chapter 10, , especially if the material in chapter 10 is essential to an understanding of the text at the point where the reference occurs. Occasionally such references are unavoidable, but more often than not they are a sign that the text needs to be re-ordered. In the old days, re-ordering text entailed cutting and pasting with real scissors and real paste. Nowadays, the word-processor has made these operations so easy that there is no excuse for slovenly structure. Take your time, and keep rearranging words or phrases within sentences, sentences within paragraphs, paragraphs within sections and sections within the whole report until you have got it right. Aim for a logical progression from beginning to end, with each sentence building on the previous ones. If the chapters are numbered 1, 2, 3, , then the sections within (say) chapter 1 will be numbered 1. 1, 1. 2, . It is permissible to sub-divide a section: the sub-sections within section 1. 1 will be numbered 1. . 1, 1. 1. 2, . Do not however nest sub-sections to more than four levels: sub-sub-section 1. 2. 3. 4 is acceptable, but 1. 2. 3. 4. 5 is not. It is quite possible, with care, to write even a large and complex book without using more than three levels. Footnotes are a nuisance to the reader. They interrupt the linear flow of text and necessitate a mental stack-pushing and stack-popping which demand conscious effort. There are rare occasions when footnotes are acceptable, but they are so rare that it is best to avoid them altogether. To remove a footnote, first try putting it in-line, surrounded by parentheses. It is likely that the poor structure which was disguised by the footnote apparatus will then become apparent, and can be improved by cutting and pasting. 6. The role of artefacts in projects Deep down, all students seem to believe that their project is to write a program (or, to build a circuit). They believe that they will be judged by how much their program does. They are amazed when their supervisor is unconcerned about the inclusion or non-inclusion of a listing in the report. They fear that they will be penalized if their program is small-scale or if they do not make grandiose claims for its power and functionality. This leads to reports heavy with code and assertions about code, but light on reasoning. Students omit the reasoning because they are short of time and think the code more important, and thereby they lose credit they could have had. It leads also to the omission of testing. Hence there are assertions about the extent of implementation, but no evidence (in the form of records of testing) to back them up. In summary, credit for the implementation is not the whole story; you should not feel under pressure to make claims that you cannot support. Your reports should clearly separate specification, design, implementation and testing. The program does  X should more honestly be I wanted the program to do  X; I designed it to do nearly-X; I implemented it to do most-of-X; my testing shows that it did some-of-X  (and here is the evidence of that). Taking this advice into account can much improve your mark. 7. You and your supervisor Writing is a solitary pursuit. Whereas your supervisor will guide you through the early stages of your project work, you must write the report on your own. It is a University assessment, and the rules on plagiarism and collusion (do consult the Students Handbook! ), and the conventions which restrict the amount of help a supervisor can give, apply. Nevertheless, most supervisors will be happy to read and to comment on drafts of sections of your project report before you hand it in, if you give them enough time to do so. Its also a good idea to ask your supervisor to suggest some high-quality past projects in a similar field to yours, and to look them up in the departmental library. This will give you an idea of what is required. 8. Summary 1. Good writing is difficult, but it is worth taking the trouble to write well. 2. Leonard was trying to form his style on Ruskin: he understood him to be the greatest master of English prose. He read forward steadily, occasionally making a few notes. Let us consider a little each of these characters in succession, and first (for of the shafts enough has been said already), what is very peculiar to this church its luminousness. Was there anything to be learnt from this fine sentence? Could he adapt it to the needs of daily life? Could he introduce it, with modifications, when he next wrote a letter to his brother, the lay reader? For example: Let us consider a little each of these characters in succession, and first (for of the absence of ventilation enough has been said already), what is very peculiar to this flat its obscurity. Something told him that the modifications would not do; and that something, had he known it, was the spirit of English Prose. My flat is dark as well as stuffy. Those were the words for him.

Irony on the Contrary essays

Irony on the Contrary essays Irony lives in all our days. Hour after hour we experience irony and coincidence. A well-produced shift can accent the smaller things and make them larger than life. As for the Holocaust, the biggest trick that Hitler ever accomplished was banking on the ignorance of the masses. Rather than keeping his actions within the realm of sanity, he chose to insanely create the destruction of millions of innocent lives. Irony is that Hitler had Jewish heritage. Was Hitler a troubled man, yes but not insane. No man of sound mind and body would choose to hate so much. Instead, I will assume that Hitler was just entirely to motivated. His goal was world domination and he saw the Jewish community as an easy target. Having already been ridiculed by masses, it only took Hitler a matter of a few speeches to gain the confidence of a nation in the hatred of Jews. This was his 2nd move. He united the masses and now had the control to influence a nation in much need of a leader. If being in the right place at the right time is irony then Hitler needs to go ahead and take credit for that one. Half of any accomplishments are deciding what you want to achieve. The other half is finishing what you start. As many times as I read about nations trying desperately to take over the world, I have never actually heard of it being accomplished. History teaches always stress the past so that we will not repeat it, that makes me feel a little less comfortable in that world domination has yet to happen. Perhaps that we as a people have evolved enough to sustain a matter of checks and balances, thus keeping a feel of comfort and rest. Some people fear change while others embrace it, but the enigma is not to leave it up to fate instead, create. Rather than allowing possibility, expect to fall and be great full for the chance to get up. Leave irony for the laughter and only feel guilt when you know you could have made a difference. ...

The history of Ottoman empire Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The history of Ottoman empire - Essay Example The Empire was founded by Osman I. In 1453, following its capture from the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople, modern stanbul, became the new capital of the Ottoman Empire under the name 'Kostantiniye'. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman Empire was among the world's most powerful political entities, with the powers of eastern Europe constantly threatened by its steady advance through the Balkans and the southern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Its navy was a powerful force in the Mediterranean. On several occasions it even invaded central Europe, sieging Vienna, in its attempts to conquer the Habsburg domain, and was only repulsed by coalitions of European powers. In this period, the discussions among the elites of Ottomans on how to organize a new state constitute the most important detail. The location of this movement gave it access to many different cultures and experiences. Given the historical facts of other great empires, Ottoman elites believed that the power of the sword was not enough to build and maintain a powerful state. Swords must be wielded by men. It was important to find strong and capable men and bind them together in willing cooperation to conquer large sections of Europe, Asia, and Africa. It was also important to organize and govern their conquests in a fairly satisfactory fashion, and to establish a structure which would take great effort to dismantle. Ottoman elites gave precedence to the political ideas that constituted the life of the empire, which became their ruling institution. Only with these ideas was it possible to attract a great body of men from many directions and races and unite them in a common effort. The ideas and culture that were shaped during this period took three hundred years to decay and be destroyed. While it is arguable the empire had injustice, violence and destructive forces involved in the development of its structures, these must be considered within the context of their eight centuries of history, during which Turks began to drift southwestward away from the declining Saracen Empire Even though the Ottoman state existed before Osman I, he is regarded as the founder of the Empire, having given it its name and being the first bey to declare his independence. He extended the frontiers of the empire towards the Byzantine Empire, while other Turkish beyliks suffered from infighting. Under Osman I, the Ottoman capital moved to Bursa. He published the first coin under his name, demonstrating the trust he built. The economical structure of the Empire was defined by the geopolitical structure. The Ottoman Empire stood in between West and East, thus blocking the route eastward forcing Spanish and Portuguese navigators set out in search of a new route to the Orient. The Empire was holding the same path that Marco Polo once used. Ottoman studies imply that the change in politics between Ottomans and Central Europe did depend on the opening of the new sea routes. It is also possible to see the decay of the Ottoman Empire by tracing the loss of significance of the land routes. Decay is a very relative term, in reality while central Europe is moving forward, Ottoman were holding on to their traditions. The pragmatic thinking of Ottomans that once helped to reform the systems left behind by Roman Empire was once again giving out the same signs

HRM practice in other countries Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

HRM practice in other countries - Lab Report Example It has been estimated that today the company provides fixed-line wireless and internet services to over 63 million customers spread across 16 countries (Plunkett). Emirates Data Clearing service (EDCH), one of the five divisions offers international roaming services for 57 third party GSM providers in 39 countries. The firm’s other important divisions are Emirates Internet Exchange (EMIX), UAE Network Information Center (UAEnic), Evision, Ebitkar, the Contact Center, e-Academy, and UAELAB. The company has numerous other international investments. Given below are some of the major organizations where Estisalat has its considerable investment. 1. Thuraya: It is the mobile satellite service which covers more than 140 countries in three continents. In addition to telecommunication services, Thuraya provides technical support to gas, mining, agriculture, and maritime services. Estisalat holds 34% of share in Thuraya. 4. Estisalat Nigeria (EMTS): This is the largest investment of the company. Estisalat has distinguished the region as the most potential market. Estisalat enters the market through Mubadala Development Company. What made the company most powerful giant in the telecommunication industry is its business vision and HR strategy. The company’s vision statement says, â€Å"People will effortlessly move around the world, staying in touch with family, making new friends as they go, as well as developing new interests. Business of all sizes, no longer limited by distance, will be able to reach new markets. Innovative technologies will open up fresh opportunities across the globe, allowing supply of new goods and services to everyone who wants them† (Estisalat). It speaks everything about the potential market the company has been utilizing for decades for its business expansion. The more the mobility of people, the more they use technological advancements especially telecommunication

Adopting a simple profit-maximising perspective ..... can have Essay

Adopting a simple profit-maximising perspective ..... can have positive impacts for a firm ..... Discuss - Essay Example Business owners or the management are deemed to focus on maximizing profit in the short-run. Adopting simple profit optimization perspective can have positive results on a firm. This study will explore this assertion with a view to examine the positive impacts of profit optimization. Consideration will also be given to other views that suggest other perspectives that managerial decisions should consider. In today’s market, optimization of profits has gained a wider approach encompassing the consideration of uncertainty of time and value of money. This has added to the initial approach of firm theory arguing that the long-term goal of a firm is to maximize its value. Value of a firm is deemed as the present value, which is given by the expected cash flows. For simplicity, the expected cash flows are equated to profit and the present value is thus given as the value of all the profits or the cash flows, which is discounted at the selected interest rate (Keown, 2003, p. 5). Discounting is done to incorporate the uncertainty of time and value of money in the future. This study will explore the profit optimization perspective and its positive impacts, constraints faced by managerial decisions in their pursuit to optimize profits as well as the best perspective that managers should hold in the management of a firm. Profit optimization is a short-run process that involves determining of price and output levels that gives the highest returns in form of profit. As mentioned by Hirschey (2008, p. 38), the level of activity that maximizes profit in a firm is given at the point where marginal revenue (MR) and the marginal cost (MC) are equal such that any further generation of revenue results offsets cost. A simple focus on profit maximization implies that a firm is simply focused on making profits and the resources are utilized with the sole aim of getting the highest level of profits

Study On The Anthrax Disease Biology Essay

Study On The Anthrax Disease Biology Essay In 2001, letters containing the virulent Ames strain of anthrax spores were mailed to several news media offices killing five people and infecting 17 others. I found this story and the use of anthrax as a bioterrorism weapon fascinating Anthrax is a life-threatening infectious disease that normally affects animals, especially goats, cattle, sheep, and horses. Anthrax can be transmitted to humans by contact with infected animals or their products. However, anthrax does not spread from person to person. Anthrax  is an  acute  disease caused by the bacterium  B. anthracis. Most forms of the disease are lethal, and it affects both humans and other animals. As a member of the genus  Bacillus,  B. anthracis  can form dormant  endospores  that are able to survive in harsh conditions for decades.  For example, spores have been known to have re-infected animals over 70 years after the burial sites of anthrax-infected animals were disturbed. When spores are inhaled, ingested, or come into contact with a skin lesion on a host, they may become reactivated and multiply rapidly. If the spores of anthrax are inhaled, they migrate to lymph glands in the chest where they proliferate, spread, and produce toxins that often cause death. The symptoms vary depending on whether the anthrax spores were inhaled, ingested or through the skin. Inhalation Anthrax The first symptoms are subtle, gradual and flu-like. However as the illness worsens there may be severe respiratory distress, shock and coma. Spores are transported in the lymph nodes where they multiply producing deadly toxins, resulting in severe haemorrhage and necrosis. Usually causing death as although prescribed antibiotics are effective in eradicating the bacteria they do not destroy the toxins already released by the anthrax bacteria. Gastrointestinal Anthrax This form of anthrax is the rarest form. Gastrointestinal infection in humans is most often caused by eating anthrax-infected meat and is characterized by serious gastrointestinal difficulty,  vomiting of blood, severe diarrhoea, acute inflammation of the intestinal tract, and loss of appetite. Some lesions have been found in the intestines and in the mouth and throat. After the bacterium invades the bowel system, it spreads through the bloodstream throughout the body, making even more toxins on the way. Gastrointestinal infections can be treated but usually result in fatality rates of 25% to 60%, depending upon how soon treatment commences. Cutaneous Anthrax Cutaneous anthrax is typically caused when  B. anthracis  spores enter through cuts on the skin. This form of Anthrax is found most commonly when humans handle infected animals and/or animal products. Cutaneous anthrax is rarely fatal if treated,  because the infection area is limited to the skin. The cutaneous form of anthrax starts as a red-brown raised spot that enlarges with redness around it, blistering, and hardening. There lymph nodes get swollen in this area. Symptoms include muscle aches and pain,  headache,  fever,  nausea, and vomiting. The illness usually resolves in about six weeks, but deaths may occur if patients do not receive appropriate antibiotics. The bacteria may be found in cultures or smears in cutaneous anthrax and in throat swabs and sputum in pulmonary anthrax.  Chest X-rays may also show characteristic changes in and between the lungs. Other than  Gram stain  of specimens, there are no specific direct identification techniques for identification of  Bacillus species  in clinical material. A specific feature of  Bacillus species that makes it unique from other aerobic microorganisms is its ability to produce spores. Although spores are not always evident on a Gram stain of this organism, the presence of spores confirms that the organism is of the genus  Bacillus. French scientist Louis Pasteur developed the first effective vaccine for anthrax in 1881. In most cases, early treatment can cure anthrax. The cutaneous form of anthrax can be treated with common antibiotics such as  penicillin,tetracycline,  erythromycin, and  ciprofloxacin.  The pulmonary form of anthrax is a medical emergency.  There are several vaccines in current use. The Russian vaccine, called STI is a  live-attenuated vaccine  based on spores from the  Stern strain  of  B. anthracis.  The STI vaccines serious side-effects restrict use to healthy adults. If a person is suspected as having died from anthrax, every precaution should be taken to avoid skin contact with the potentially contaminated body and fluids exuded through natural body openings. The body should be put in strict quarantine.  Full isolation of the body is important to prevent possible contamination of others. Protective, impermeable clothing and equipment such as  rubber gloves, rubber apron, and rubber boots with no perforations should be used when handling the body. No skin, especially if it has any wounds or scratches, should be exposed. Anthrax cannot be spread directly from person to person, but a persons clothing and body may be contaminated with anthrax spores. Effective decontamination of people can be accomplished by a thorough wash-down with  antimicrobial  effective soap and water. Burning clothing is very effective in destroying spores. After decontamination, there is no need to immunise, treat, or isolate contacts of persons ill with anthrax. Early antibiotic treatment of anthrax is essential, delay significantly lessens chances for survival. Treatment for anthrax infection and other bacterial infections includes large doses of intravenous and oral  antibiotics, such as  fluoroquinolones. In possible cases of inhalation anthrax, early  antibiotic prophylaxis  treatment is crucial to prevent possible death. Anthrax spores can survive for very long periods of time in the environment after release. Methods for cleaning anthrax-contaminated sites commonly use  oxidizing agents   and liquid bleach products containing sodium hypochlorite. These agents slowly destroy bacterial spores.   The pH of the solution should be tested with a paper test strip; and treated surfaces must remain in contact with the bleach solution for 60 minutes. Anthrax spores can and have been used as a  biological warfare  weapon. There is a long history of practical  bioweapons  research in this area. For example, in 1942, British bioweapons trials severely contaminated  Gruinard Island  in Scotland with anthrax spores of the Vollum-14578 strain, making it a no-go area until it was decontaminated in 1990. There are a number of economic impacts of a wide release of anthrax. These include loss of life and direct compensations to families. In addition healthcare, loss of property, decontamination, evacuation and return. After the 2001 attacks the cleanup of postal facilities and offices cost $130 million and took 26 months.

In Favor of Violence In Sports :: Sport essays research papers

With the increase in society taking a stance against violence by many people, sports has become an area where some feel that the violent acts such as the hitting and fighting that occurs should be eliminated. You can not change something that has been around for so long because it would change the aspect of the game to something completely different. The elimination of violence should not be done in sport because the violence is a part of the game which would only hurt its popularity. The reasons that the violence is occurring in sport is due to six theories according to John Schneider. "The violence in sport mirrors the violence found in society, violence as the result of economic incentives, the influence of crowd behavior on player violence, genetic causation for player aggression, learning theory and player aggression, and psychological stress and player violence" (Lapchick 230). The theories of sport mirroring society, violence as a result of economic incentive, and the influence of the crowd behavior are the theories that I feel are responsible for the increasing violence in sports. Most people when involved in a highly stressful situation where violence is around would probably resort to a fight to resolve their differences. In sport, why should we expect any difference. In events such as hockey games, where people are expected to hit and make body contact, sooner or later a fight will break out and the fans will yell and scream for their favorite player involved. Like anything, if people around us are applauding us for a certain act we have done, we will try to do it over so that we will continue to be praised. In sports, there are some players whose only role on the team is to protect and enforce the unwritten rules of the game such as in hockey where it is not right to fight or hit a Wayne Gretezy or Mario Lemieux type of star player! . His economic incentive is to protect the team and if he does not, a new line of work might be in the future. All three of those theories relate closely to the role of the fighter in sport and why it is that he does commit the acts of violence. When leagues such as the National Football League (NFL) or the National Hockey League (NHL) are asked to try and remove the violence from their sport, they are hesitant because it is not what the fans want. "Bryant and Zillman report that television viewers enjoy NFL plays more when they are rough and